Pornography and Ethics

Table of Contents Introduction Definition of pornography Ethical aspect of pornography Unethical aspect of Pornography Independent perspectives Conclusion References Introduction The modern society is saturated with many sexual images such shirtless male athletes and barely clothed females in advertisement and movies. In addition, nudity or soft-core pornography and explicit sex scenes or hardcore pornography shown in public televisions and over the internet are becoming more and more acceptable into the society.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Pornography and Ethics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This raises two questions; the effect of living in a society saturated with sexual images and existence of morals in modern society. Historically, sexual images served the purpose of worshipping gods, adorning pottery and criticizing the political elites. Thus, sexual images were imbedded in the religious , legal and moral context i.e. sexuality was never thought of as a separate sphere of life. However, in modern this perspective has ceased to exist. Sex is considered a form of advanced calisthenics i.e. an act whereby two people come together without consideration of its physical context. The set of all modern sexual images constitute pornography because they serve no intended purpose other than gratification. However, this is notion is pornography is partially accurate as it give a vague correlation between sexual images and pornography. This paper is going to assess the extent to what extent is the definition of pornography qualified to be used, and if pornography is ethical in modern society. Definition of pornography Ethics examines the basic concepts of values. This is because, values shape what individuals define as wrong or right, moral or immoral, fair or unfair, good or bad etc. In more general terms, ethics is focused on inventing or studying systems that individuals may refer to when addressing ‘what is good’ (Beauchamp, 2002).Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ethics also seeks to provide answers on how a person ought to be living or carrying out his duties. As consequence, it is an important and complex component that should be integrated in law, religion and the society in general as a base for definition of morals or standards. Thus, everybody in one way or another should understand and practice ethic to morally upright (Beauchamp, 2002). Pornography can be defined as materials that portray erotic content, or the set of all obscene materials, which are intended to cause sexual arousal. These materials can be in the form of literature, pictures and videos. However, this definition is ambiguous. This is because the concept sexual arousal and the definition of obscenity or erotic materials are relative terms i.e. they depend on an i ndividual or the social context under which they appear or exist. Moreover, this definition fails to answer a simple question; how much content must be there for a material to be classified as obscene or erotic? Can it be a single image, a whole video clip or suggestive dialogue? Under the umbrella of ethics, Pornography is can be redefined as a struggle or fight that describes an argument, not a thing, about erotic representation. For example, if a group of persons decided that an erotic representation is beautiful, then it is likely to be considered a creative artwork. Thus, pornography in such a contest and a struggle between those who attempt to create erotic material and those who attempt to suppress it, or a contest between allowing or denying an individual the right to display explicitly sexuality (Strossen, 2000). However, this struggle is not uniform globally and is dependent on the social values of a given locality. For instance, walking in bikini is normal in some places and others it is considered obscene. Ethical aspect of pornography The pornography, a subsector of the entertainment industry, is the most profitable sector to venture in. So far, it is the richest industry with an unexplainable exponential growth rate. As at 2007, this industry was recorded to have generated a total revenue of $57 billion worldwide, with the top four most selling erotic material being in the form of adult videos, escort videos, magazines and sex clubs respectively.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Pornography and Ethics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This revenue was much greater than the total combination of revenues received from professional football, baseball, and basketball franchise (Family safe media, 2011). Egoism and Welfarism perspectives of ethics justify the ethical nature of pornography. In this view, the humongous revenue arising from pornography suggests that the indust ry is a major form of lucrative employment to the actors, website mangers, movie directors and other direct or indirect participants. Moreover, it is the shortest route to becoming famous and it assists the government in earning revenue. Therefore, this industry is a means of obtaining income is legally, and is more acceptable than begging or stealing. Moreover, it does not require sophisticated training or advanced degrees to venture in or to be successful (Strossen, 2000). Thus, the industry serves the interests of the participants and is therefore ethical. Pornography is the new adopted tool for advertising. This is because of the psychological association that potential consumers have attached to sexuality. Men are visual creatures while women like attention. Thus, images of beautiful, naked or barely dressed women attached in advertisement attract men and give the product an association beauty. On the other hand, women would watch the adverts in order to ascertain what makes im ages gain that much attention. Overall, the objective of the product advertisement is achieved (Attwooll Brockmà ¶ller, 2001). Leisure is the outcome of an experience or activity i.e. the feeling of satisfaction. Pornography viewing is a form of entertainment and leisure activity that many modern people have adopted. Nowadays, it is very common to find people over the weekend sitting and relaxing just watching erotic materials over the internet or on DVD.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To such individuals, it is source of pleasure, satisfaction, and to group viewers, it is means of bonding together (Strossen, 2000). Thus under the hedonistic utilitarianism, which requires that people should maximizes all the avenues of pleasure in the short life span for an individual’s own good, seeking pleasure through pornography is ethical (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). The hidden nature of sexuality has for a long time forbidden parents from talking about sex to their children. Children left with option of learning about sex from schools, which do not effectively teach about sex. However, the most hilarious TV commercials and soap operas, watched by children and adults, openly display pornographic materials. Actors discuss morality, act getting pregnant and extramarital affairs, and above all, they have scenes that portray sexuality as a process whereby two people meet fall in love or not but eventually fall to bed. This begs the question of appropriateness of the audience. Th us, existence of pornographic materials has transformed sex education. Parents are coerced to openly speak about sex to their children, least they may regret what their children may become. Unethical aspect of Pornography In religious perspective, human body is compared with temple of god and sex is considered a religious form of intimacy and hence sacred. Also, sex is considered a divine gift that gives human beings the divine power of co-creation. Thus , it should be done by only married couples in a dignified manner, for the purpose of procreation. Thus pornography demoralizes sex by addressing with casualness and in a careless manner. The slow and gradual introduction of pervert principles makes those perceived to be lesser evils acceptable. Pornography operates in a similar manner, and through it sexually explicit contents have become widespread acceptable (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). Thus, it encourages acceptance of sexual perversion and adultery which are considered sin before god . In most instances, people who come into constant with despicable images are prone sexual acts such as to premarital sex, sodomy, lesbianism and sex outside marriage, which are condemned in the holy books such as the Bible and Quran. â€Å"Consequentialists† argue that morals attached to action are subject to the outcome. The outcomes associated with addiction to, prolonged or continuous consumption pornographic content has very negative repercussions (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). For instance, it leads to building up of tolerance towards plain sex. As consequence, an individual is tempted â€Å"to explore more deviant forms of sexuality† such as fetishism, and â€Å"paraphilias†. Moreover, the hype portrayed by porn stars can lead frigidity and sexual dysfunction, which are detrimental to marriages, and are major contributors of divorce, promiscuity and clandestine relationship within the marriage circle. This makes pornography unethical. Existence of Pornography con tent in work places, places the workplace at a risk that can attract legal liability, loss of production and loss of bandwidth. Firstly, pornography is addictive and may make employees less focused on work related issues hence becoming less productive. Secondly, Pornographic content can lead to arousal of employees and may encourage sexual harassment and intercourses at work places. Sexual harassment may attract legal liability. Lastly, transfer of pornographic materials over peer to peer networks consumes a lot of company’s connection bandwidth and this can cripple the networking services of an organization. Technology is becoming so cheap that it has made access to erotic content easy for children. Children who view pornographic materials act out the sexual fantasies that they see with other children and adults. This has significantly contributed to fornication and premarital sex, teenage pregnancy, venturing into prostitution at an early age, and contacting of sexually tra nsmitted diseases. Thus the outcome or consequence of having pornographic materials has negative effects on children and must be considered unethical (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). Pornography supports the interests of few individual and therefore under the utilitarian approach, pornography is unethical.Feminists argue that pornography is has no entertaining value but rather a degradation of women. It promotes violence against women and also portrays them as weak and undeserving respect (Soble, 2006). Further, it promotes social vices and affects the attitudes of the user by endorsing rape myths, misogynist and negative attitudes towards women. They also view child pornography as immoral because it is a means of exploiting or abusing underdeveloped children for the sole purpose of making money. Moreover, they describe the audience as mentally incompetent or people with biological flaws, who other than protecting children enjoy their subordination (Soble, 2006). Independent perspectives It i s almost impossible to take a side over the concept of pornography. All actions in some way are justified by accompanied reasons. However, reasons that may justify a given action are not necessarily the motivating factors over the actions. Thus, the reasons given by different people as to why pornography is ethical or not, are not necessarily the same as their motivation for watching or not watching erotic materials. I find the argument against pornography more appealing in the sense that it is driven by reason rather than motivation. According to Kant, moral judgment is means of guiding behavior but it only expresses feelings and not facts. For instance, if a person derives pleasure from viewing erotic contents then it is moral (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). However, this perspective cannot be used to justify pornography because feelings change frequently and without reason. This is unlike facts that are very difficult to change. Thus, ethical nature of pornography should be guided by fact s only, which strongly disapprove pornography. Hume argues that â€Å"actions are guided by faith and desires†. Thus the degree to which pornography is wrong or right depends on what the individual motivation or desires (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). For example, religious persons oppose pornography because it is contrary to their faith. However, a porn actor or actress see the pornography as means of earning a living hence they would support it. Therefore, if an action is ethical and motivating then it considered right. The problem with this view is that faith and desires are relative and thus cannot be used to establish the ethical nature of pornography. Deontologists argue that it â€Å"is our duty to act morally at all times†. However, not all duties are absolute i.e. everything that is considered either moral or immoral have cases in which their rules are bent. Moreover, in reality morals and the associated theories do not provide all answers, and so every action must be guided by insight and proper judgment (Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, 2008). Therefore, Pornography is wrong based on its consequences or impacts. However, if watching or acting pornography can be justified if it is driven by positive motives (Attwooll Brockmà ¶ller, 2001). For example, a porn star that makes a living through acting erotic movies is justified to be involved in such an act. I strongly support the concept that â€Å"pornography is unethical†. This is because every individual is brought up under some societal values and norms for which engagement in pornography or with pornographic materials is not one of them. Pornography is a creation of the modern society, mainly as result of the hidden nature of sexuality, unemployment, and moral decadence. Although it exists it does not mean that people have to conform to it. Moreover, the amount of damage to the society resulting from pornography industry far outweighs the benefits i.e. very few stand to benefit heavily at the expense o f many people. The damages caused by pornography are real. Therefore pornography should be controlled- in terms of the quantity and access of the content- for the well being of the society at large. However, a total ban of pornography is barbaric and violation of an individual’s freedom to choice or freewill. Moreover, it may signal the end of livelihood of many who primarily depend on this industry. Conclusion The definition of pornography in an ethical context is ambiguous. This is because the boundaries to which an action or concept can be declared ethical are not clear. Thus any definition of pornography given, based on the type or quantity of the content, is subjective. The proponents of the pornography base most of their arguments based on egoism, freewill and motivation. Thus to them pornography is ethical as long as it addresses their own needs if comes at the expense of the society. They argue mainly on income, fame, business and education. On the other hand, the ant agonists of pornography justify their views on religious grounds, utilitarianism and consequentialism. According to them, pornography degrades the society and has detrimental effects in workplaces, marriages and above severely affects growth of children. References Attwooll, E. Brockmà ¶ller, A. (2001) Applied Ethics At The Turn Of The Millennium: Proceedings Of The 19th World Congress Of The International Association For Philosophy Of Law And Social Philosophy (IVR), New York, June 24-30, 1999 California: F. Steiner Beauchamp, P.T. (2002) Philosophical Ethics: An Introduction to Moral Philosophy. Illinois: McGraw-Hill College Family Safe Media (2010) Preserving Family Values in a Media Driven Society. From www.Familysafemedia.com. Accesses on October 29, 2011 Soble, A. (2006). Sex from Plato to Paglia: A Philosophical Encyclopedia. Ohio: Greenwood Strossen, N. (2000) Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women’s Rights New York: New York University Tà ¤nnsjà ¶, T. (2008) Understanding Ethics: An Introduction to Moral Theory UK: Edinburgh University This research paper on Pornography and Ethics was written and submitted by user Hulkl1ng to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Organic Products Essay Example

Organic Products Essay Example Organic Products Essay Organic Products Essay Definition of Ecopreneurship The term â€Å"ecopreneur† is derived from two terms which are â€Å"entrepreneur† and â€Å"ecology. An entrepreneur is a person who undertakes innovations, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform innovations into economic goods and who accepts the risks associated with them. (Schaper, Michael. 2002) He can be anyone who identifies an opportunity in a market and has a belief that it would succeed in the economy and on that belief he starts exploiting the opportunity. They may create a new organization or may be a part of an existing organization where they revitalize the organization in response to their perceived opportunity. Generally, the word entrepreneur is used to denote a person who starts a new business but with time and more understanding of the subject, the revised definition of an   entrepreneur also includes â€Å"intrapreneurs†, that is an entrepreneur operating within a corporate environment. Entrepreneurs are the strategic factors in economic development and the central factors in the trade cycle as they are the driving force of an economy. Ecology or environmental biology is the branch of biology which takes into consideration the examination of living organisms in the natural environment. It includes the study of individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems. (Goliath. 2002). The ecology has reached enormous importance in the last years because of man’s interest in the environment in which he lives and to find ways to protect the environment in order to make it sustainable. The word ecopreneur is a portmanteau of â€Å"ecological† and â€Å"entrepreneur. An ecopreneur is an individual who is focused on ecologically-friendly issues and causes, attempting to do business in a way which benefits the environment. He may not be a person or entity only involved in products like solar powered cells, water conservation system or compostable packaging. In fact, an ecopreneur is anyone who ranks environment more than or equally to profits as his most effective criteria as a business owner (reuters, 2007) . While many entrepreneurs may be motivated, at least in part, to the mantra of â€Å"greed is great† on their journey to becoming a millionaire, growing numbers of ecopreneurs are adopting a different course, focusing on solving the problems facing society through the businesses they create, greening their bottom line. Many are redefining their wealth, as we have, not by the size of their bank account or square footage of their home. Wealth is defined by life’s tangibles: health, wellness, meaningful work, vibrant community life and family. †(John Ivanko. . The main aim of an ecopreneur is to build a firm which is more sustainable and environmentally friendly. Sustainability development is a pattern of resource use such that it not only meets present human needs, but also preserves the environment so that the resource can also be utilized by the future generations. Sustainable business, or green business, is enterprise that has no negative impact on the global or local environment, community, society, or economy- a business that strives to meet the triple bottom line (people, planet and profit). Often, sustainable businesses have progressive environmental and human rights policies. In general, business is described as green if it matches the following four criteria: * It incorporates principles of sustainability into each of its business decisions. * It supplies environmentally friendly products or services that replace demand for nongreen products and/or services. * It is greener than traditional competition. * It has made an enduring commitment to environmental principles in its business operations. Who is an Ecopreneur An entrepreneur whose business efforts are not only driven by profit, but also by a concern for the environment†. (Schuyler. 1998). The terms such as â€Å"Sustainopreneur†, â€Å"environmental Entrepreneur† and â€Å"eco capitalist† are synonymous with ecopreneur. The characteristics of ecopreneur are: * They all undertake business ventures which involves a measure of risk * They must identify a feasible business opportunity * Th eir activities must have a positive impact on the environment. * The degree of intentionality separates ecopreneur from accidental entrepreneurs. Principles of ecopreneurship There are some basic principles and measurements that can help guide the practice of ecopreneur and provide some basic standards of principle to this emerging group. 1. Energy and Resource Use Efficiency and Maximization: â€Å"In nature, one-way linear flows do not long survive. Nor, by extension, can they long survive in the human economy that is a part of the earths ecosystem. The challenge is to redesign the materials economy so that it is compatible with the ecosystem†. (Lester Brown. Earth Policy Institute). By minimizing waste production and maximizing reuse of waste streams, sustainable business can potentially significantly increase profits. 2. Ecosystem Services: Services related to protection of ecosystem and natural resources and preventing environmental degradation can be an inspiration for a green business idea for ecopreneurs. 3. Natural step principles: Ecopreneurs can see potential risks, such as extinction of substances extracted from the Earth’s crust or overharvesting etc, as opportunities for success through green business. 4. Eco- efficiency and eco-effectiveness: Ecopreneurs should find methods of decreasing waste while increasing productivity such that the waste of the production process and the product itself can be the raw materials of a new product of service. Drivers and Challenges The driving forces behind ecopreneurship are as follows: 1. Global population growth: Ecopreneurs realize that as the resources and land area is limited, so it is their responsibility to ensure that there are enough resources not only to fulfill the needs of the current population which is growing continuously, but also for the future generations. Hence they should find ways to conserve energy, materials, and resources by developing new technologies or finding ways to control birth rate and finding ways to meet the food and shelter demand for the growing population in order to make sustainability possible. 2. Increasing life expectancy: Ecopreneurs value life, not only their own and of family members, but of the whole humanity. They want everyone to live a longer and healthier life, that is why they develop products and ways to increase life expectancy such as healthier food, purified water etc. . Climate change: Climate shapes the way we live on this planet and the way we live, work and play is advertently changing the climate. The pollutants released in the air due to use of fossil fuels is adversely affecting the climate. In order to sustain the climate, ecopreneurs are involved in finding alternate ways to produce energy such as using wind, water and solar energy. 4. Resource scarcity: The diminishing natural resources are a great issue as we will be left with no natural resources if we do not sustain them. In order to sustain them, ecopreneurs constantly look for alternatives by recycling them or using a cheaper, abundantly available resource if possible. 5. Lack of equity in the world: The people of the world are living in a continuum, with one end which has all the facilities of the world including the best quality food, water and home, while on the other end are people who do not even have the basic necessities of life. Ecopreneurs want to make sure that every living being on the world is treated equally so that no one is deprived of anything. That is why they are active members of movements such as WTO and also find ways to produce goods and services affordable by everyone. They are also involved in philanthropic acts such as giving charity donations to help the deprived people of the society (Environlution, 2010). Organic Food as Eco Friendly Product Organic foods are foods that are produced using methods that do not involve modern synthetic inputs such as synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers, do not contain genetically modified organisms, and are not processed using irradiation, industrial solvents, or chemical food additives. For the vast majority of human history, agriculture can be described as organic; only during the 20th century was a large supply of new synthetic chemicals introduced to the food supply. The organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture known as the Green Revolution. Organic food production is a heavily regulated industry, distinct from private gardening. Currently, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Japan and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order to market food as organic within their borders. ORGANIC VERSUS CONVENTIONALLY- PRODUCED FOOD Although the attributes associated with organic foods may be difficult to identify by visual inspection alone, most consumers purchase organic products because of a perception that these products have unique (and in some cases superior) attributes compared to conventionally grown alternatives (Vindigni et. al, 2002). On the other hand, a major rea son why some consumers do not purchase organic foods is linked to a perception that such foods are not better than their conventionally produced alternatives (Jolly et al. 1989). There is, thus, a continuing debate about whether organically produced products are superior to and/or different from conventionally produced alternatives and, if so, in terms of what characteristics. * CONSUMER AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ORGANIC FOOD The environmental ethic that gained worldwide prominence with Earth Day 1990 placed emphasis on individual responsibility (for personal health) and social action (on environmental quality and animal welfare) (MacEachern 1990; Jolly, 1991). Personal responsibilities include making informed consumer choices. This, in turn, requires consumer knowledge and awareness about competing products. Knowledge and awareness have other direct and indirect effects on attitudes toward consumer products, and the willingness to pay a price premium. Because organic products are credence goods, consumers (unlike producers who are aware that their products are organic) may not know whether a product is produced using organic or conventional methods, not even after repeated purchase and consumption, unless they are told so (Giannakas, 2002). Thus, awareness and knowledge about organically produced foods are critical in the consumer purchase decisions. If an individual cannot clearly differentiate between two alternative products, a price premium on the organic product can confuse and/or affect the individual’s purchasing decision, in favor of the cheaper product. Most studies on consumer knowledge about organic products reflect a conceptual belief that is true and justified. Consequently, studies typically use measurement methods that essentially rely on correctness to answers on survey questionnaire (Hunt, 2003). Correct (or incorrect) responses imply that the respondent has knowledge (or does not have knowledge) about organic foods and products. Hunt (2003) has noted some limitations associated with such a narrow definition of consumer knowledge, and proposed a wider definition and measurement that captures other important, but often neglected, dimensions of knowledge. Studies that investigated the level of consumer awareness and knowledge about organic foods include Jolly et al. (1989), Ekelund (1990), Akgungor et al. 1997), Hutchins and Greenhalgh (1997), Wang et al. (1997), Compagnoni et al. (2000), Environics (2001), Oystein et al. (2001), Kenano? lu and Karahan (2002), Cunningham (2002), Demeritt (2002), Hill and Lynchehaun (2002). A critical review of these studies suggests that, overall, there is some consumer awareness about organic foods around the world. This awareness is high especially in Western Europe, where the organic market is relatively well developed, compared to other reg ions of the world. Consumer awareness of organic products in North America compares reasonably well with that of Western Europe. Although there is general consumer awareness around the world, the literature also suggests that consumers have inconsistent interpretations about what is ‘organic’. For example, in a survey of consumers in three California counties, Jolly et al. (1989) found that respondents associated organic produce with no pesticides, no artificial fertilizer, no growth regulators, and residue-free products. Similarly, survey respondents in the UK perceived ‘organic farming’ to imply absence of chemicals, ‘absence of growth hormones’, and ‘not intensively grown’ or ‘products grown naturally’ (Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997). In a more recent study for the UK, respondents described organically produced food as one that is more natural and healthy, compared to conventional food (Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002). Furthermore, there was no difference in the UK consumers’ understanding of â€Å"organic† among organic and non-organic food buyers. In other words, both buyers of organic and non-organic products felt that organic alternatives have no pesticides and/or use no chemical fertilizers, and are natural and healthy. In contrast, Jolly (1991) reported a substantial difference in how US buyers and non-buyers rated organic product quality, compared to conventionally grown products. Consumer knowledge and awareness will continue to be important in the organic food market in two respects. First, there is still a segment of the potential market that is not yet informed about organic foods. For example, in a US study which reported that knowledge and awareness was considered the number one reason why consumers do not buy organic food, 59% respondents indicated that they never considered organic products because they did not know about them (Demeritt, 2002). A second dimension to the knowledge and awareness puzzle is the possibility that those who do not consider organic products may have a general knowledge about them, but do not have enough detailed information to clearly differentiate the unique attributes of organic from conventionally grown alternatives. In summary, knowledge and awareness about organic products can affect attitudes and perceptions about the product and, ultimately, buying decisions. If the skepticism about organic products stemming, in part, from reported cases of mislabeling and fraud are assuaged, perceptions about the appeal and inherent characteristics of organic may translate into actual demand. * CONSUMER ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS Consumers actions regarding organic food stem from attitudes that in turn, are linked to a complex set of ideas, motivations and experiences. Beliefs and perceptions are highly subjective notions (Fishbein and Ajzein, 1975), because they reflect opinions about the objective state of the world. Although in reality such perceptions may or may not be true, the individual who holds the perception thinks that it is true. Given Lancasters (1966) notion that consumers demand bundles of product characteristics, perceptions about particular (desirable) characteristics of organic food can influence a buyers choice. Studies on consumer perceptions about organic versus conventionally produced food therefore attempt to determine what consumers think is true. By comparison, consumer attitudes are likes and dislikes. That is, the positive and negative orientations toward organic or conventionally grown food. Weistberg et al. (1996) argued that consumer preference for a particular product is based on attitudes toward available alternatives. Thus if consumers are asked to indicate their preferences regarding organically versus conventionally produced food, such respondents typically compare their attitudes toward the methods of purchasing the goods, and/or the product characteristics under consideration, before stating their preferences. Although particular attitudes are often assumed to lead to specific behaviors, the food and nutrition science and social-psychological literature provide limited evidence to support the assumption (Goldman and Clancy, 1991; Sims, 1980). Overall, the scholarly literature suggests that various consumer attitudes work in contrasting ways- for and against purchasing organic products. Several consumer studies have been undertaken in North America and Europe to assess consumer perceptions about organic foods (e. g. Hay, 1989; Ott, 1990; Huang et al, 1990, Huang et al, 1993; Misra et al, 1991; Jolly et al, 1989; Jolly, 1991; Goldman and Clancy, 1991; Ekelund, 1990; Baker and Crosbie, 1993; Swanson and Lewis, 1993; Groff et al, 1993; Sylvander, 1993; Buzby and Kees, 1994; Byrne et al, 1994; Fricke and von Alvensleben, 1997; Hack, 1997; Hutchins and Greenlagh, 1997; The Packer, 1998; Thompson and Kidwell, 1998; Oystein et al, 2001, O’Donovan and McCarthy, 2002; Jolly, 2001; The Packer, 2001; Demeritt, 2002; Wolf, 2002; Cunningham, 2002). The key findings from selected studies on consumers’ attitudes and preferences about organic foods are summarized in Table 4. Most of these studies concluded that consumers purchase organic foods because of a perception that such products are safer, healthier, and more environmental friendly than conventionally produced alternatives. Some studies reported health and food safety as the number one quality attribute considered by organic product buyers. Concern for the environment was less important compared to food safety and health concerns, suggesting that such consumers might rank private or personal benefits higher than the social benefits of organic agriculture. * CONSUMER PREFERENCES FOR ORGANIC FOOD Consumer preference for organic food is based on a general perception that organic products have more desirable characteristics than conventionally grown alternatives. Apart from health, food safety and environmental considerations, several other product characteristics such as nutritive value, taste, freshness, appearance, color and other sensory characteristics influence consumer preferences (Bourn and Prescott, 2002). Studies that investigated the effect of organic quality attributes and other characteristics on consumer preferences include Jolly et al. , 1989; Hay, 1989; Ekelund, 1990; Jolly, 1991; Jolly and Norris, 1991; Sylvander, 1993; Buzby and Skees, 1994; Huang, 1996; Kyriakopoulos et al. 1997; Schifferstein and Oude-Ophuis, 1998; Akgungor et al. , 1997; Mahesh et al. , 1997; Land, 1998; Torjusen et al. , 1999; The Packer, 2001; Meatnews, 2001; Loureiro et al. , 2001; Aguirre, 2001; Demeritt, 2002; Wolf, 2002; and Cunningham, 2002. These studies differ in several respects, making comparisons across studies difficult. For example, there is inconsistency in defining the concept of quality. Thus, while some studies examined quality in terms of both sensory and nutritive characteristics, others differentiate sensory characteristics from nutritive attributes. Thus, different studies may have conveyed different notions of quality to the various survey respondents. In general, the empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that product quality characteristics affect consumers’ preferences for organic food; with the most important including nutritional value, economic value, freshness, flavor or taste, ripeness, and general appearance (especially of fruits and vegetables). Wolf (2002), for example, reported that respondents in California rated fresh-tasting and fresh-looking grapes as the most desirable attribute. Other North American surveys that ranked taste as the most important quality characteristic influencing consumer demand include The Packer (2002), Cunningham (2002), and Demerit (2002). The Packer (2002) reported that 87% of US respondents identified taste as the primary factor considered in the purchase of fresh produce. Cunningham (2002) also reported that 93% of Canadian respondents prefer food products with good taste. In contrast, studies for other parts of the world (e. g. , Jolly et al. , 1989; Buzby and Skees, 1994; Torjusen et al. 1999) reported that consumers ranked nutritional value and freshness higher than taste and other related quality characteristics. While most studies reviewed for North America tended to suggest that consumers rank taste and related sensory characteristics as more important than food safety and environmental concerns, studies in the other regions (such as the EU) tended to place health and food safety, and environmental concerns at the top of the pr eference ranking (see, for example, Sylvander, 1993; Shifferstein and Oude Ophuis, 1997; Akgungor et al. 1997; Aguirre, 2001; Sandalidou et al. , 2002). What seems clear, and consistent across studies, is that consumers in all regions tend to prefer locally grown organic produce, compared to shipments from other places. In addition, organic product purchase decisions tend to be influenced more by product quality and other inherent characteristics, than by price premium. On the other hand, several studies (e. g. , Sylverstone, 1993; Buzby and Skees, 1994; Davies et al. , 1995; Roddy et al. , 1996; Latacz-Lohman and Foster, 1997, Worner and Meier-Ploeger, 1999; Oystein et al. 2001; Demeritt, 2002; O’Donovan and McCarthy, 2002) reported that price premium, lack of knowledge and product availability were the major reasons preventing non-buyers from purchasing organic food. Demeritt (2002), for example, reported that the most important reason why US consumers did not purchase orga nic food was lack of knowledge or awareness. About 59% of those who did not purchase organic products indicated they never really considered organic, while 39% indicated that price was the main inhibiting factor. Another 16% reported they did not purchase organic foods because of limited availability. Davies et al. (1995) and O’Donovan and McCarthy (2002) also reported product availability and price as key inhibitors to consumers’ demand for organic foods in Ireland. According to Davis (1995), two-thirds of non-buyers of organic food in Ireland reported they would buy organic if it was easily available. By comparison, O’Donovan and McCarthy (2002) reported that among Irish respondents who did not purchase organic food, 43% indicated it was too expensive, 28% cited lack of availability, while 29% were just not interested. Challenges in Organic Food Industry Successful transition from niche to mainstream status The major challenge the organic food industry faces is the successful transition from niche to mainstream status. Although organic foods are becoming more visible in European food retailers, they have yet to acquire broad appeal with consumers. Organic foods are not considered to have mainstream status since a small amount of consumers account for the majority of purchases in most countries. For instance, consumer research shows that 61% of organic foods in the UK are purchased by 7% of consumers. In Denmark, 1% of consumers account for 80% of purchases. Although many consumers are now buying organic foods in European countries, a small consumer base is responsible for the bulk of purchases. This is responsible for slowing growth rates in countries like Denmark and the UK. Organic foods need to have broader consumer appeal if they are to take mainstream status in the food industry and the major challenge faced by many organic food companies is how to expand the loyal consumer base. Prevention of fraudulent business practices A number of cases have been reported in the last couple of years of non-organic food being labelled and sold as organic food. For instance, in May 2001 it was discovered that 20,000 tonnes of non-organic grain was imported and sold as organic grain to unsuspecting British organic farmers and producers. This is a major threat to the industry for consumers purchase organic foods because of the belief that it has been grown according to organic farming principles. The continuation of these fraudulent cases risks undermining consumer confidence in organic foods. Consumer demand for organic foods, especially imported products, could collapse if this type of fraud continues. Continuing political support required for industry development. There is growing pressure to reform the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and changes are likely in the short term. There is a need for political representation of organic farming. Organic farming needs to be promoted at the ministerial level as a sustainable form of agriculture. The question is: who will take the lead with political change happening on a regular basis due to the growing trend of coalition governments? Protection of price premium Organic foods, because of their nature of production, have a price premium over conventional foods. This can range from 15% for organic milk to over 100% for some organic exotic fruit and specialty cheeses. There is growing pressure for organic food growers and producers to reduce production costs. This pressure comes from retailers, which attempt to narrow the price premium as low as possible in order to encourage consumer demand. The major barrier to product adoption in many countries consumers is the high price. The concern is that this pressure could translate into a compromise in organic standards and the method of production. For instance, organic farmers can be tempted to produce to the lowest standards of organic production in order to cut costs. This is likely to erode consumer confidence and promote divisions in the organic food industry on the lines of organic standards. Recommendations for organic food industry * Food safety, hygienic regulations and consumer protection Politicians and decision makers should promote the idea of mature and responsible producers and consumers with regard to food safety. Controls and liability for food safety should not be burdened only on the shoulders of governments and authorities. Citizens will relieve authorities by accepting responsibility too. The duty of governments and authorities will only be to function as controllers of private control services. Producers, processors, traders and consumers should hold regular meetings on round tables and develop mutual confidence with the aim to accept together responsibility for food safety. Fair prices (no dumping prices) for high quality and healthy food are an important precondition to guarantee food safety. The practiced biodynamic farm model to produce a high percentage of the animal feedstuff directly on the farm and use mainly the own fertilizer is a very suitable one to ensure food safety. * Food quality Creation of consciousness that food quality means more than producing hygienic sound nutrition. Food quality must not be reduced only to chemical detectable contents. Conventional food quality analyses should be supplemented by other analytical methods that can detect vital force in foodstuffs. The production of superior food quality( that fulfils all quality aspects) should be promoted. Education in organic farming Promoting education of children in schools about organic food and agriculture. Establishing and funding of vocational education programs especially for organic Farming. Funding of practical studies and training in organic farming organizations. Reference * Website quicklogodesign. com/blog/ecopreneurship-entrepreneurs-and-ecology. * http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sustainable_business * http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Triple_bottom_line#Definition * http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Principles_of_ecopreneurship * http://academic-papers. rg/ocs2/session/Papers/F6/216-2066-1-DR. doc * http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Organic_food * just-food. com/analysis/european-organic-food-industry-challenges-future-outlook_id93636. aspx * http://demeter. net/brussels/di_eu_action_plan. pdf * greenprof. org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/The-Making-of-the-Ecopreneur. pdf ajofai. info/Abstract/Consumer%20knowledge%20and%20perception%20about%20organic%20food%20a%20challenge%20for%20consumer%20education%20on%20the%20benefits%20of%20going%20organic. pdf

The Possibility of Ethical Leadership, Pro and Con Essay

The Possibility of Ethical Leadership, Pro and Con - Essay Example The pros and cons of ethical leadership are then dependent on belief systems, definitions and current trends in society. Understanding how these influence others within a society helps to create and define several aspects of those that are considering the practice of ethical leadership. The concept of ethical leadership is one which is currently considered a central issue among businesses, educational systems, institutions, politics and other areas where leaders are required. The history of ethical leadership begins with types of leadership values which have been defined in each of these segments. This is inclusive of characteristic tests, such as kindness, sobriety and altruism. This aspect of leadership is often referred to as the 10 commandments of leadership. The concept continues with values which individuals have when becoming leaders, including ethical and moral values of the individual as well as strategic positions which each use with personal and social behaviors that are a ble to influence those in the surrounding area. The ethical definition is one that is then based on how one interacts with others and the characteristics which an individual has to influence others that are within a specific social status (Ciulla, 2004). The defining points of leaders in any situation also give question to the pros of having the characteristics and ideologies of belief systems among leaders. ... This is combined with the ideology of personalism, in which the leader is able to become a servant leader while working with others. By having a sense of morality among those, there is the ability to transform and empower others that are in the surrounding environment while helping to change the understanding of the vision and the actions which are taken among those who are a part of the community and which have a personal relationship to those that are in power (Whetstone, 2002). Another aspect that is currently a part of ethical leadership is based on the ability to create standards for upholding representations of integrity, sincerity and value. Businesses have created a general stigma in relation to the ethics that are withheld at a global level, specifically through standards such as corporate leadership. The attribute of ethical leadership is based on upholding standards of morality in various regions, specifically which upholds corporate standards, laws of a given region and s ocial expectations within that region. The outcome that is expected is based on the capability of creating ethical responses and social reforms that offer fair and accurate information through reports and expectations that are from those in society. These may be based on trends and standards of institutions or may be associated with overcoming challenges that are within a given region (Laufer, 2003). Even though it is expected that ethical leadership is able to provide a value base for every realm of action, there are also several cons to the concept of morals in leaders. The first is based on the concept of authentic leadership. This states that there are leaders who comply with